Research Paradigms
Quantitative vs Qualitative
Quantitative research measures 'how much' or 'how many' and tests predetermined hypotheses. Qualitative research explores 'how' and 'why,' seeking to understand meaning, context, and lived experience. Neither is superior—they answer different types of questions.
Philosophical Foundations
• Knowledge through observation
• Researcher is detached
• Values objectivity
• Seeks laws and predictions
• Knowledge through meaning
• Researcher is participant
• Values authenticity
• Seeks understanding
• Knowledge is political
• Research for change
• Values emancipation
• Seeks transformation
• Knowledge through action
• Mixed methods welcome
• Values usefulness
• Seeks practical solutions
Research paradigms reflect different beliefs about reality (ontology) and knowledge (epistemology). Positivists seek objective truth; interpretivists construct meaning; critical theorists challenge power; pragmatists focus on what works. Your paradigm shapes your methods.
Choosing Your Approach
• Measuring relationships between variables
• Comparing groups or conditions
• Generalizing to a population
• Need statistical evidence
• Evaluating intervention effectiveness
• Understanding 'how' and 'why'
• Capturing lived experience
• Studying complex social processes
• Need rich, detailed data
• Building theory from data
• Explaining quantitative results
• Developing and testing instruments
• Triangulating findings
• Addressing complex problems
The research question should drive method choice. 'Does X affect Y?' calls for quantitative. 'How do people experience X?' calls for qualitative. 'Does X affect Y and how do people experience it?' calls for mixed methods.
Qualitative Data Collection
In-Depth Interviews
Interviews are conversations with purpose. Semi-structured interviews are most common: you have a guide but can probe deeper. Ask open-ended questions, listen actively, and follow interesting threads. Typically 30-90 minutes, recorded and transcribed.
Group Discussions
• Efficient data collection
• Sparks new ideas
• Social validation
• Conformity pressure
• Sensitive topics hard
• Harder to analyze
Focus groups bring 6-10 participants together to discuss a topic. A skilled moderator guides discussion while encouraging interaction between participants. Great for exploring shared experiences and social norms. Not suitable for sensitive personal topics.
Ethnographic Methods
• Reflective notes (your thoughts)
• Methodological notes (process)
• Theoretical notes (emerging ideas)
Observation ranges from detached watching to full immersion. Ethnography involves prolonged engagement in a setting, documenting practices, rituals, and meanings. Write detailed field notes during or immediately after observation. Consider your role's impact on what you observe.
Document & Text Analysis
• What purpose does it serve?
• What's included/excluded?
• What context shaped it?
Documents provide unobtrusive data—they exist independent of your research. Analyze official documents, media, websites, social media, personal writings, or visual materials. Always consider authorship, audience, purpose, and context. Documents reflect their creators' perspectives.
Coding & Analysis
Interactive Coding Exercise
Coding is like tagging—you assign labels (codes) to chunks of data that represent key concepts. Start by reading your data multiple times. Then identify meaningful segments and give them short descriptive labels. Group similar codes into broader themes. This 'Try It' widget lets you practice tracking your codes—add each code you identify!
The Coding Process
Coding is iterative: you'll revisit and revise codes many times. Open coding breaks data into discrete parts. Axial coding puts them back together in new ways. Selective coding integrates everything around a central theme. Use constant comparison—always comparing new data to existing codes.
Types of Codes
"career change," "family support"
"hitting rock bottom"
"adapting," "negotiating"
"frustrated," "hopeful"
"independence valued"
"identity transformation"
Different code types serve different purposes. Descriptive codes summarize topics. In vivo codes preserve participants' language. Process codes capture actions (-ing words). Emotion codes flag feelings. Values codes identify beliefs. Pattern codes are meta-codes that group lower-level codes.
Thematic Analysis
Thematic analysis is a flexible method for identifying patterns (themes) in qualitative data. It's accessible for beginners yet rigorous when done well. Themes should be distinct, coherent, and meaningful. Each theme needs a clear name, definition, and supporting quotes.
Quality & Rigor
Lincoln & Guba's Criteria
• Prolonged engagement
• Triangulation
• Member checking
• Peer debriefing
• Thick description
• Detailed context
• Reader judges fit
• Audit trail
• Document decisions
• External audit
• Reflexivity
• Show your work
• Negative cases
Trustworthiness is the qualitative equivalent of validity and reliability. Credibility asks: do findings reflect reality? Transferability asks: do they apply elsewhere? Dependability asks: is the process consistent? Confirmability asks: are conclusions grounded in data, not bias?
Multiple Sources of Evidence
Multiple sources
Different approaches
Multiple researchers
Different lenses
Triangulation uses multiple perspectives to strengthen findings. Data triangulation uses different sources (interviews + documents). Method triangulation uses different approaches (interviews + observation). Investigator triangulation involves multiple researchers. Theory triangulation applies different theoretical lenses.
Researcher Positionality
Reflexivity means examining how your background, assumptions, and position shape your research. You can't eliminate bias, but you can be transparent about it. A reflexive journal documents your evolving perspective. Include a positionality statement in your write-up.
Participant Validation
• Transcripts for accuracy
• Individual interpretations
• Emerging themes
• Final findings
Member checking returns findings to participants for verification. It respects participants as knowers, not just sources. But be strategic: participants may not recognize patterns across multiple interviews, and they might disagree for various reasons. Consider their feedback but maintain your analytical authority.
Mixed Methods Designs
Rationale for Mixed Methods
Mixed methods aren't just 'qual + quant'—they integrate both strategically. Greene's purposes: Triangulation seeks convergence; Complementarity sees different facets; Development uses one to inform another; Initiation discovers contradictions; Expansion extends range. Know WHY you're mixing.
Common Mixed Methods Designs
Merge
Sequential designs run one phase then another. Explanatory: quant first, qual explains results. Exploratory: qual first, develops quant measures. Convergent: both simultaneously, then merged. Notation: CAPS = priority; lowercase = secondary; → = sequential; + = concurrent.
Integrating Qual & Quant
How studies connect
Sampling, data collection
Comparing findings
Joint display tables
| Quant Finding | Qual Finding | Meta-inference |
|---|---|---|
| 65% reported stress | "Overwhelming pressure" | Stress is pervasive & intense |
Integration is the heart of mixed methods—without it, you just have two separate studies. Joint displays visually merge qual and quant findings. Create matrices showing how findings converge, complement, or contradict. Meta-inferences draw conclusions across both strands.
Mixed Methods Challenges
Mixed methods face legitimate challenges. The 'paradigm wars' questioned whether positivist and interpretivist approaches can coexist. Pragmatism offers a way forward by focusing on practical usefulness. But mixed methods require expertise in both traditions and careful planning for true integration.
Reporting Qualitative Research
Writing Up Qualitative Research
Qualitative write-ups are more narrative than quantitative reports. The methods section needs detail: how you recruited, collected data, and analyzed. Findings present themes with rich quotes as evidence. Discussion interprets meaning and connects to theory. Include reflexivity throughout or as a separate section.
Using Quotations Effectively
Quotes are evidence, not decoration. Always interpret before or after quoting. Use quotes that are vivid, representative, and specific. Vary quote length: short phrases can be embedded; longer quotes deserve block format. Include participant identifiers (pseudonyms or codes). Don't over-quote—your analysis should dominate.
Reporting Guidelines
• Occupation
• Experience/training
• Relationship to participants
• Sampling strategy
• Data collection
• Data saturation
• Software used
• Participant checking
• Quotes presented
COREQ (Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research) provides a 32-item checklist covering research team, study design, and analysis. Many journals require COREQ compliance. It ensures you report essential methodological details readers need to evaluate your work.
Ethical Considerations
Qualitative research raises unique ethical issues. Rich descriptions may enable identification despite pseudonyms. Informed consent is ongoing—participants may reveal more than intended. Power dynamics between researcher and participants require reflexive attention. Always consider: whose interests does this research serve?
Test Your Understanding
Test your understanding • Passing score: 70%