Signal Flow

Electric guitars, basses, and piezo pickups produce medium-level signals with high impedance. They need a Hi-Z (high impedance) input to avoid tone loss.

The 'standard' level for audio equipment. Synths, keyboards, drum machines, outboard gear—all output line level. Two standards exist: consumer (-10dBV) and professional (+4dBu).

Quick reference for matching sources to inputs.

Hi-Z inputs (500kΩ to 1MΩ) are designed for passive guitar/bass pickups. They don't load down the high-impedance output, preserving full tone.

A DI box converts high-impedance, unbalanced guitar signal to low-impedance, balanced signal suitable for mic inputs. Also isolates ground loops.

Wrong impedance doesn't just lose level—it specifically loses high frequencies, making the tone dull and lifeless.

Set preamp gain so the loudest parts peak around -12dBFS to -6dBFS in your DAW. Average levels around -18dBFS. Don't chase 0dBFS—you have 24-bit headroom.

Keep individual tracks from being too hot. When 30 tracks sum together, levels add up. Leave headroom on tracks so the mix bus doesn't overload.

0dBFS = absolute maximum in digital. Clipping = instant, harsh distortion. Many reference analog 0VU to digital -18dBFS for proper headroom.

Transparent preamps amplify without adding significant harmonic content. What goes in comes out, just louder. Good for sources with complex harmonics (acoustic, orchestral).

Colored preamps add harmonic distortion, saturation, and EQ curves that shape the sound. Neve adds 'thickness', API adds 'punch', tube preamps add 'warmth'.

No single preamp is 'best'. Choice depends on source, style, and desired result. Many engineers have both clean and colored preamps.

Condenser microphones require external power for their internal electronics and to polarize the capsule. Some active DI boxes and special mics also need it.

Vintage ribbon mics can be damaged by phantom power. The DC voltage can stretch or burn the delicate ribbon element. Modern ribbons are usually protected, but check first.

Simple habits prevent damage and clicks/pops in recordings.

The connector type often indicates balanced or unbalanced, but not always. TRS can be balanced line or unbalanced stereo (headphones).

Short runs (under 10 feet) in clean environments can use unbalanced. Long runs (especially near power cables) need balanced to stay clean.

Sometimes you need to connect balanced to unbalanced or vice versa. Simple adapters work for short runs. DI boxes or transformers for longer runs or critical applications.

TS (Tip-Sleeve) is unbalanced: guitar cables. TRS (Tip-Ring-Sleeve) is balanced line level OR stereo headphones. The ring adds a third conductor.

Speaker cables carry high current from amp to speaker. They use thick conductors. Instrument cables use thin wire with shielding—fine for small signals, dangerous for speaker current.

Expensive cables don't make signals better, but quality construction means reliability. Most audio differences between cables are marketing—focus on durability.

Noise can be hum (60Hz/50Hz = ground loop), buzz (harmonics = electrical interference), or hiss (high-frequency = preamp noise or bad cable).

Distortion means something is clipping—either the preamp, the interface input, or the DAW input. Find where it's too hot.

Signal that cuts in and out, crackles, or is unreliable usually points to cables, connectors, or cold solder joints.